By Wolfgang Klein
This publication appears to be like on the a number of ways that time is mirrored in normal language. All typical languages have built a wealthy repetoire of units to specific time, yet linguists have tended to pay attention to annoying and element, instead of discourse ideas. Klein considers the 4 major ways that language expresses time - the verbal different types of demanding and element; inherent lexical beneficial properties of the verb; and numerous sorts of temporal adverbs. Klein appears to be like on the interplay of those 4 units and indicates new or partially new remedies of those units to specific temporality.
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Because of the vast body of information available in the literature, what follows cannot be more than a brief summary. 1. Individual Factors Several individual factors have been studied in order to assess their role in L2 development. They include age, anxiety, empathy, extroversion, intro- 32 CHAPTER 2 version, and risk-taking. Of these variables, age and anxiety appear to play a relatively greater role than the others. 1. Age. It is generally believed that the age at which learners begin to learn a second language influences their ultimate attainment in language knowledge/ability.
45). 30 CHAPTER 2 Krashen (1981, and elsewhere) asserted that comprehensible input and low affective filter are the only two factors that determine intake. He is convinced that “every other factor hypothesized to relate to SLA reduces to input plus low filter” (1983, p. 141). Larsen-Freeman (1983) too suggested that “the key to input’s becoming intake is its comprehensibility” (p. 14). Sharwood Smith (1985) took exception to these views and stated that it is “particularly unreasonable to give L2 input the unique role in explanation of intake” (p.
It seems reasonable enough to talk about a knowledge of grammatical rules or sociocultural conventions, but knowing how to compensate for relative incompetence will surely often, if not usually, be a matter of expedient tactical maneuver. (p. 166) LANGUAGE: CONCEPTS AND PRECEPTS 19 As a result of these and other shortcomings of the Canale/Swain framework, other formulations of language competence have been proposed. Bachman (1990), for instance, has proposed a Communicative Language Ability model.