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17: Cartoon of geometric concepts of the solar corona: gravitationally stratified layers in the 1950s (left), vertical fluxtubes with chromospheric canopies in the 1980s (middle), and a fully inhomogeneous mixing of photospheric, chromospheric, and coronal zones by dynamic processes such as heated upflows, cooling downflows, intermittent heating (ε), nonthermal electron beams (e), field line motions and reconnections, emission from hot plasma, absorption and scattering in cool plasma, acoustic waves, and shocks (right) (Schrijver, 2001b).
6. 18: Concept of multi-thread loops, which exhibit more or less fine structure depending on the angular resolution of the observing instrument. 1 (a proposed future SMEX mission). 6 Density Structure of the Solar Corona The particle density in the corona, and even in the chromosphere, is much lower than the best vacuum that can be generated in any laboratory on Earth. Electron densities in the solar corona range from ≈ 106 cm−3 in the upper corona (at a height of one solar radius) to ≈ 109 cm−3 at the base in quiet regions , and can increase up to ≈ 1011 cm−3 in flare loops.
3. 12: Ten soft X-ray maps of the Sun, covering the same time interval of almost a full solar cycle as the magnetograms shown in Fig. 11, observed with the Solar X-ray telescope (SXT) on the Yohkoh spacecraft (courtesy of Yohkoh Team). reaches a maximum during the peak of a cycle and drops to a low level during the minimum of the cycle (see magnetograms in Fig. 11). During the solar cycle, the magnetic flux varies by a factor of ≈ 8 in active regions, by a factor of ≈ 2 in ephemeral regions, and even in anti-phase in small regions (Hagenaar et al.