By Roy Porter (auth.)
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In his later years in particular, Jean-Jacques Rousseau waxed lyrical in praise of a piety which was emotional and spiritual rather than intellectual [45]. The great English polymath, Joseph Priestley, 'discoverer' of oxygen, and uncoverer of the corruptions of Christianity, was second to none in his Enlightenment ardour that education, science, industry and technology would bring about endless progress; but he expressed his belief in human perfectibility in terms of a literally millenialist Christianity.
The new republic beckoned to old Europe to go and do likewise. In the 1780s, philosophes such as Condorcet, who had heretofore trusted to reason and expertise to secure improvement, abandoned their earlier technocratic bias, and began to discover a new political virtue in the people [12; 72]. The fact that the question of who exactly constituted, or could speak for, the people, was profoundly ambiguous did not become crystal clear until after 1789. The French Revolution of course created a ferment of political theories and schemes.
Classical economics' theory of the laws of profit and loss and the 'iron law of wages' precluded such 'interference' with market mechanisms (all interference with competition, they claimed, only encouraged inefficiency). Laissez-faire economics thus endorsed an inhumane system in the name of the 'natural laws' of market forces - laws which, the politician Edmund Burke proclaimed, were sacred because they were the 'laws of God'. The new social sciences developed by the philosophes 22 were highly critical of Christian conceptions of divinely appointed government, and of feudal hierarchy and subordination.